Brahma through proper discipline of mind and body. This discipline is called
“yoga.” There are four principal disciplines of yoga: (1) Karma, the
discipline of works, action, or performance of good deeds; (2) Jnana, the
discipline of thought, philosophy, and knowledge; (3) Bhakta, the way
to one god through faith and devotion; and (4) Raja or royal yoga, the
approach to Brahma through meditative exercises.
Hindus consider the cow to be sacred, not as a god but as a symbol of
identity with all life. The Hindu affection for the cow is something special,
probably because throughout their history Indians have depended so heavily
on the cow for pulling plows and carts, for milk, and for fuel (dried dung is
still India’s principal domestic fuel). For a Hindu to consume beef is a
sacrilege, tantamount to cannibalism. Some Hindus bow respectfully to all
cows that they pass, and wealthy men endow hostels to take care of old and
decrepit cows. Seeing God in everything, the Hindus have a reverence for all
living things—trees, rivers, cows, ants, etc. This reverence is expressed in one
form as ahimsa, or nonviolence to animals as well as to humans; as a result,
most pious Hindus are vegetarians.
Ethics
Personal ethics are not neglected in the Hindu texts, and there is much
sacred literature of high ethical value, notably the Bhagavad Gita, the Tamil
Kural, and many of the poems of the medieval hymnodists. For the layman,
the norm of personal conduct was contained in the traditional three aims in
life (purushartha): righteousness of religious merit (dharma); profit and
material advantage (artha); and pleasure (kama). All three were regarded as
worthy of pursuit, but the claims of the first overrode those of the second,
and those of the second overrode those of the third. There was a fourth long-
term aim of salvation (moksha), which was only pursued directly by ascetics.
Modern Hindu teachers, however, appear to have largely disregarded the
doctrine of the three aims, and the layman is often told to follow the ascetic’s
way of life as far as possible.
Contributions to the World
Undoubtedly, the greatest contribution of Hinduism to the world has
been that of Mahatma Gandhi, whose unique synthesis of religion and
politics provided an ideology for the civil disobedience movement which was
instrumental in gaining India’s independence. Greatly influenced by
Christian ideas which he reconciled with the Hindu outlook, Gandhi gave a
new sense of purpose to many Hindus of all classes and taught them to
respect their traditional beliefs and practices while adapting them to the
needs of the times, Continuing the work of early reformers, he encouraged
the emancipation of Hinduism from the system of class and caste and
fostered a spirit of social service. His work has been continued in the
agrarian reform movement led by Vinoba, and in many smaller movements.
RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
Hindu scriptures were written during various phases in the growth of
Hinduism. The later and higher forms did not condemn nor displace the
2-91
